Steam Generator

 A steam generator is a device used to produce steam by applying heat energy to water. Steam is widely used in industrial processes, power generation, heating systems, and more. Steam generators can range from small units used in applications like saunas to large industrial systems in power plants or refineries.

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Types of Steam Generators

1. Fire-Tube Boilers:

   • Heat passes through tubes surrounded by water.
   • Common in low- to medium-pressure applications.
   • Examples: Scotch marine boilers.

2. Water-Tube Boilers:

   • Water flows through tubes heated externally by a flame or hot gases.
   • Suitable for high-pressure and high-temperature applications.
   • Examples: Utility boilers in power plants.

3. Electric Steam Generators:

   • Use electric heating elements to produce steam.
   • Compact, clean, and commonly used in laboratories and small industries.

4. Once-Through Boilers:

   • Water flows continuously without a drum, directly converting to steam.
   • Compact and highly efficient.

5. Nuclear Steam Generators:

   • Used in nuclear power plants to transfer heat from the reactor to produce steam for turbines.

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Key Components

1. Feedwater System:

   • Supplies water to the generator.
   • Includes pumps, preheaters, and deaerators to remove oxygen and other gases.

2. Furnace/Burner:

   • Generates heat using fuels like natural gas, oil, or coal.
   • Electric generators use heating coils.

3. Heat Exchanger/Coils:

   • Transfers heat to water to produce steam.

4. Steam Drum (in water-tube boilers):

   • Separates steam from water in multi-drum designs.

5. Control Systems:

   • Maintain pressure, temperature, and water levels.

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Applications

1. Power Generation:

   • Produces high-pressure steam to drive turbines in thermal or nuclear power plants.

2. Process Industries:

   • Used in chemical plants, refineries, and food processing for sterilization, drying, or heating.

3. HVAC and Building Systems:

   • Centralized steam systems for heating large buildings or districts.

4. Marine Applications:

   • Provides steam for propulsion and auxiliary systems on ships.

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Working Principle

1. Heat Input:

   • The heat source raises the temperature of the water.

2. Phase Change:

   • Water absorbs heat and turns into steam at its boiling point.

3. Steam Collection:

   • The generated steam is collected and directed for use.

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Advantages

• High energy transfer efficiency.
• Versatile applications across industries.
• Scalable from small to very large systems.

Challenges

• Requires careful maintenance to avoid scaling and corrosion.
• High-pressure systems need rigorous safety protocols.
• Initial costs can be high for large-scale systems.

1-Fire Tube Boiler

Fire-tube boilers are one of the oldest and simplest types of steam boilers, commonly used for low- to medium-pressure steam applications. In a fire-tube boiler, hot gases produced from fuel combustion flow through tubes, which are surrounded by water. The heat from the gases transfers through the tube walls to the water, converting it into steam.

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Key Features of Fire-Tube Boilers

1. Design Simplicity:

   • Compact and easy to install.
   • Low initial cost compared to other boiler types.

2. Applications:

   • Ideal for low- and medium-pressure applications (up to ~250 psi).
   • Used in heating systems, small power plants, and process industries.

3. Fuel Types:

   • Can use a variety of fuels, including natural gas, oil, coal, or biomass.

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Components of a Fire-Tube Boiler

1. Shell:

   • The outer cylindrical vessel containing water and the fire tubes.

2. Fire Tubes:

   • Tubes running through the boiler where hot gases flow.
   • Heat is transferred from the gases to the surrounding water.

3. Furnace or Combustion Chamber:

   • Located at one end of the boiler.
   • Fuel is burned to generate hot gases.

4. Burner:

   • Supplies and mixes air and fuel for efficient combustion.

5. Steam Space:

   • Located at the top of the shell where steam collects before being sent to the outlet.

6. Chimney/Stack:

   • Exhausts combustion gases to the atmosphere.

7. Water Level Controls:

   • Maintain proper water levels to prevent damage to the tubes or overheating.

8. Safety Valves:

   • Release excess pressure to prevent explosions.

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How Fire-Tube Boilers Work

1. Fuel Combustion:

   • Fuel is burned in the furnace, creating hot gases.

2. Heat Transfer:

   • The hot gases flow through the fire tubes, transferring heat to the surrounding water.

3. Steam Generation:

   • As water absorbs heat, it turns into steam.
   • Steam collects in the steam space for delivery to the application.

4. Exhaust:

   • After transferring heat, gases exit through the stack.

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Advantages of Fire-Tube Boilers

1. Simple Design:
   • Easy to operate and maintain.
2. Cost-Effective:
   • Lower initial and operational costs for small-scale applications.
3. Durable:
   • With proper maintenance, these boilers can last for decades.
4. Reliable:
   • Proven technology with widespread use.

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Limitations of Fire-Tube Boilers

1. Limited Pressure and Capacity:
   • Not suitable for high-pressure or high-capacity applications.
2. Long Startup Time:
   • Slower response to load changes compared to water-tube boilers.
3. Risk of Explosion:
   • Water inside the shell stores significant energy, which can be dangerous if safety systems fail.
4. Efficiency:
   • Generally lower thermal efficiency than water-tube boilers.

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Common Types of Fire-Tube Boilers

1. Scotch Marine Boiler:
   • Widely used in ships and industrial applications.
2. Horizontal Return Tubular Boiler:
   • Simple design with horizontal tubes.
3. Vertical Fire-Tube Boiler:
   • Compact, suitable for small-scale applications like steam engines.
4. Lancashire Boiler:
   • Features two large fire tubes for better heat distribution.

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Applications of Fire-Tube Boilers

• Heating buildings (space heating).
• Steam supply for small industrial processes.
• Hot water heating in commercial and residential buildings.
• Marine applications (e.g., powering steam-driven ships).

Water-Tube Boilers

Water-tube boilers are high-performance steam-generating units designed for industrial and power-generation applications. Unlike fire-tube boilers, in a water-tube boiler, water flows through tubes heated externally by hot gases. This design allows them to operate at higher pressures and temperatures, making them ideal for large-scale steam production.

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Key Features of Water-Tube Boilers

1. High Pressure and Temperature:

   • Operate at pressures up to 3,000 psi or more and temperatures exceeding 550°C.

2. Compact and Efficient:

   • Compact design with better heat transfer efficiency due to a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio.

3. Rapid Steam Generation:

   • Produces steam quickly, ideal for power plants and industrial processes with variable demands.

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Components of a Water-Tube Boiler

1. Drums:

   • Steam Drum:
     • Located at the top, it separates steam from water.
   • Mud Drum:
     • Found at the bottom, collects sediment and impurities.

2. Water Tubes:

   • Water flows through these tubes, which are exposed to heat from the combustion gases.

3. Furnace or Combustion Chamber:

   • Houses the burner for fuel combustion and heat generation.

4. Burner:

   • Provides a controlled supply of fuel and air for combustion.

5. Superheater:

   • Enhances steam quality by heating saturated steam to make it superheated.

6. Economizer:

   • Preheats feedwater using exhaust gases to improve efficiency.

7. Air Preheater:

   • Heats combustion air with exhaust gases, further enhancing boiler efficiency.

8. Control Systems:

   • Maintain water levels, pressure, and temperature.

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How Water-Tube Boilers Work

1. Water Circulation:

   • Feedwater enters the economizer and flows into the steam drum.
   • Water is distributed to the water tubes and flows downward into the mud drum.

2. Heat Transfer:

   • Heat from the combustion gases transfers to the water in the tubes, converting it to steam.

3. Steam Separation:

   • The steam drum separates the steam from water.
   • Steam is sent to the superheater (if present) for further heating.

4. Exhaust:

   • Hot gases exit through the economizer and air preheater before being vented via the stack.

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Advantages of Water-Tube Boilers

1. High Pressure and Capacity:

   • Suitable for large-scale industrial and power-generation applications.

2. Fast Response:

   • Quickly meets changes in steam demand.

3. Compact Design:

   • Saves space in high-capacity plants.

4. Increased Safety:

   • Stores less water, reducing the risk of explosion compared to fire-tube boilers.

5. Higher Efficiency:

   • Economizer and preheater maximize fuel usage.

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Limitations of Water-Tube Boilers

1. Complex Design:
   • Requires skilled operation and maintenance.
2. Higher Initial Cost:
   • More expensive to purchase and install than fire-tube boilers.
3. Maintenance Intensive:
   • Tubes are more prone to fouling and require frequent cleaning.
4. Sensitive to Water Quality:
   • Requires high-quality feedwater to prevent scaling and corrosion.

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Applications of Water-Tube Boilers

1. Power Plants:

   • Produces steam to drive turbines for electricity generation.

2. Industrial Processes:

   • Used in chemical plants, refineries, and pulp and paper industries.

3. Marine Industry:

   • Provides steam for propulsion and auxiliary systems on ships.

4. Food and Beverage Industry:

   • Sterilization, cooking, and drying processes.

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Types of Water-Tube Boilers

1. Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:

   • Horizontal water tubes and an external furnace.

2. La-Mont Boiler:

   • Forced circulation system for high efficiency.

3. Benson Boiler:

   • Supercritical boiler without a steam drum, operating at pressures above the critical point.

4. Stirling Boiler:

   • Multi-drum boiler with excellent load flexibility.

5. D-Type Boiler:

• Compact design, widely used in marine and industrial applications.

Electric Steam Generators

Electric steam generators are compact and efficient devices that produce steam using electricity as the heat source. These units are commonly used in industries and applications where clean, efficient, and precise steam generation is needed, such as in laboratories, food processing, and pharmaceutical production.

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Key Features of Electric Steam Generators

1. Electric Heating:

   • Use electric resistance elements or electrodes to heat water directly.
   • No combustion of fuel, making them environmentally friendly.

2. Compact Design:

   • Small footprint compared to traditional boilers.
   • Ideal for locations with limited space.

3. Clean Operation:

   • No emissions, making them suitable for sensitive applications like sterilization.

4. Ease of Use:

   • Simple controls for quick startup and shutdown.

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Components of an Electric Steam Generator

1. Water Reservoir:

   • Stores the feedwater required for steam generation.

2. Heating Elements:

   • Electric coils or electrodes immersed in water for efficient heat transfer.

3. Steam Outlet:

   • Releases generated steam to the application or process.

4. Control System:

   • Monitors temperature, pressure, and water levels.
   • Automatic shutoff in case of abnormal conditions.

5. Safety Devices:

   • Pressure relief valves and thermal cutoffs to prevent overpressure or overheating.

6. Insulated Housing:

   • Reduces heat loss and improves efficiency.

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How Electric Steam Generators Work

1. Water Supply:

   • Feedwater is pumped into the generator's reservoir or directly into the heating chamber.

2. Electric Heating:

   • Electric elements heat the water, converting it into steam.

3. Steam Production:

   • Steam is collected in the chamber and released through the outlet for use.

4. Safety and Control:

   • Sensors maintain pressure and temperature within preset limits.

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Advantages of Electric Steam Generators

1. Environmentally Friendly:

   • No emissions or combustion byproducts.

2. Energy Efficiency:

   • High efficiency due to direct conversion of electricity into heat.

3. Low Maintenance:

   • Fewer moving parts compared to fuel-fired boilers.

4. Compact and Quiet:

   • Minimal space requirements and quiet operation.

5. Precise Control:

   • Accurate regulation of steam output for specialized applications.

6. No Fuel Storage:

   • Eliminates the need for on-site fuel storage, reducing hazards.

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Limitations of Electric Steam Generators

1. High Operating Costs:
   • Electricity can be more expensive than other fuels like natural gas.
2. Capacity Limitations:
   • Typically used for low- to medium-capacity applications (up to ~200 kW).
3. Power Supply Dependency:
   • Requires a reliable and sufficient electrical supply.

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Applications of Electric Steam Generators

1. Healthcare and Laboratories:

   • Autoclaves, sterilization, and humidification.

2. Food and Beverage Industry:

   • Cooking, cleaning, and sterilizing equipment.

3. Pharmaceutical Production:

   • Steam for manufacturing and sterilization processes.

4. Textile Industry:

   • Steam for pressing and finishing fabrics.

5. Industrial Processes:

   • Small-scale steam applications in chemical and manufacturing industries.

6. Hospitality:

   • Steam saunas, spas, and laundry facilities.

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Types of Electric Steam Generators

1. Resistance Heating Generators:

   • Use electric coils to heat water.
   • Common in low-capacity systems.

2. Electrode Boilers:

• Water acts as a conductor, and electrodes generate heat by passing current through it.
• Suitable for higher capacities.

Multi-column distillation unit

 A multi-column distillation unit is a specialized process system used in industries such as petroleum refining, chemical manufacturing, and water purification to separate components of a mixture based on differences in their boiling points. The unit operates with multiple distillation columns arranged in a series or parallel, allowing for more precise and efficient separation of mixtures.

Key Components:

1. Distillation Columns:

   • The primary structures where the separation occurs.
   • Typically packed or tray columns to enhance contact between vapor and liquid phases.

2. Reboiler:

   • Provides the necessary heat to vaporize the liquid at the column's bottom.

3. Condenser:

   • Cools and condenses the overhead vapor to collect the desired distillate.

4. Feed Preheater:

   • Prepares the feed mixture by raising its temperature close to the boiling range.

5. Interconnecting Piping:

   • Transfers intermediate streams from one column to another.

6. Control Systems:

   • Automation for monitoring temperature, pressure, and flow rates.

7. Pumps and Compressors:

   • For moving liquids and gases between columns.

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Types of Multi-Column Distillation Units:

1. Petroleum Fractionation Units:

   • Used in refineries to separate crude oil into fractions like gasoline, kerosene, and diesel.

2. Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation:

   • Removes components with similar boiling points using specific agents or solvents.

3. Cryogenic Air Separation Units:

   • Separates gases like oxygen, nitrogen, and argon at very low temperatures.

4. Multistage Water Distillation:

   • Common in desalination plants for producing potable water.

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Working Principle:

1. Feed Entry:
   • The mixture enters the first column where the most volatile components are separated.
2. Vapor-Liquid Interaction:
   • Vapor rises, and liquid flows down, promoting heat and mass transfer.
3. Intermediate Processing:
   • Intermediate streams are sent to subsequent columns for further purification.
4. Product Recovery:
   • Each column yields a specific product fraction.

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Advantages:

• High separation efficiency for complex mixtures.
• Scalability for industrial needs.
• Reduced energy consumption when optimized.

Challenges:

• High capital and operational costs.
• Complex design and control requirements.
• Risk of fouling and corrosion.

An example of a multi-column distillation unit is the Crude Oil Distillation Unit (CDU) in petroleum refineries, which separates crude oil into different fractions. Here's how it works:

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Example: Crude Oil Distillation Unit (CDU)

1. Feed Preheating:

   • Crude oil is preheated using heat exchangers and then sent to a desalter to remove salts and impurities.
   • It is further heated in a furnace to reach temperatures of around 350–400°C.

2. Primary Distillation (Atmospheric Column):

   • The heated crude enters the atmospheric distillation column.
   • Separation of lighter fractions occurs:
     • Overhead Products: Gas, naphtha (used for gasoline production).
     • Side Draws: Kerosene, diesel.
     • Bottoms Product: Residual oil (sent to further processing in vacuum distillation).

3. Secondary Distillation (Vacuum Column):

   • The heavy residue from the atmospheric column is sent to a vacuum distillation column.
   • Operates under reduced pressure to separate components without cracking them.
     • Products: Light vacuum gas oil (used for lube oils) and vacuum residue (used for asphalt or as feedstock for coking units).

4. Side Processing Units:

   • Depropanizer Column: Separates propane and butanes from naphtha.
   • Debutanizer Column: Further refines the naphtha fraction.
   • Reformers: Upgrade lighter fractions into high-octane gasoline components.

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Process Overview

Column	Feed	Output
Atmospheric Column	Preheated Crude Oil	Gases, Naphtha, Kerosene, Diesel, Atmospheric Residue
Vacuum Column	Atmospheric Residue	Vacuum Gas Oil, Vacuum Residue
Side Columns	Intermediate Streams	LPG, Purified Gasoline, etc.

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Benefits of Multi-Column Approach in CDU:

• Maximizes crude oil utilization by separating components efficiently.
• Allows integration of additional processing units for enhanced product value.
• Reduces energy consumption by reusing heat between columns (heat integration).

Hydraulic Conveyor

A hydraulic conveyor is a fabric coping with machine that makes use of hydraulic strength to transport substances from one region to another. It consists of several key components, including: Hydraulic pump: This component is responsible for converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. It creates a flow of hydraulic fluid that powers the conveyor system. Hydraulic motor: This component converts hydraulic energy back into mechanical energy. It is responsible for driving the conveyor belt or other material handling equipment. Conveyor belt: This is the moving surface that carries materials from one point to another. It can be made of various materials, such as rubber, PVC, or steel, depending on the application. Control valves: These components regulate the flow and pressure of hydraulic fluid, which controls the speed and direction of the conveyor system. Hydraulic cylinders: These components are used to control the position and movement of various parts of the conveyor system, such as the conveyor belt tensioning system. The operation of a hydraulic conveyor involves pumping hydraulic fluid from a reservoir through a network of hoses and control valves to a hydraulic motor. The hydraulic motor then drives the conveyor belt or other material handling equipment, moving materials from one place to another. The speed and direction of the conveyor system are controlled by adjusting the flow and pressure of hydraulic fluid through the control valves. Hydraulic conveyors are commonly used in various industrial applications, such as mining, construction, and manufacturing, where heavy materials need to be moved over long distances. They are preferred over other types of conveyors because of their high efficiency, durability, and ability to handle heavy loads. However, they require regular maintenance and monitoring to ensure their safe and efficient operation. Produce the final design: Once the design is refined and finalized, the next step is to produce the final design. This involves creating detailed drawings, specifications, and instructions for manufacturing, assembly, and maintenance. Implement and maintain: The final step in mechanical engineering design is to implement the design and maintain it over time. This includes manufacturing, assembling, and testing the product or system, as well as providing ongoing support and maintenance

Screw Conveyor

A screw conveyor is a mechanical material handling system that is used to transport bulk materials from one place to another. It consists of a rotating screw inside a tube or trough that moves materials along the length of the conveyor. The screw is typically made of metal or other materials and can be designed in various shapes and sizes depending on the application. The basic components of a screw conveyor include: Screw: This is the main component of the conveyor and is responsible for moving the materials along the length of the conveyor. The screw can be designed with various shapes, such as helical or paddle, depending on the type of material being transported. Trough or tube: This is the enclosure that contains the screw and the materials being transported. It is typically made of metal or other materials that are resistant to wear and tear. Drive unit: This is the motor or other power source that drives the screw and moves the materials along the conveyor. Support structure: This is the frame or other support system that holds the conveyor in place and provides stability. The operation of a screw conveyor involves rotating the screw inside the tube or trough, which moves the materials along the length of the conveyor. The materials are fed into the conveyor at one end and discharged at the other end, typically into a storage container or another material handling system. Screw conveyors are commonly used in various industries, such as agriculture, mining, food processing, and construction, for transporting materials such as grain, sand, chemicals, and other bulk materials. They are preferred over other types of conveyors because they are versatile, efficient, and can handle a wide range of materials. However, they require regular maintenance and monitoring to ensure their safe and efficient operation.

Piping Work

Piping work refers to the installation and maintenance of piping systems used for the transport of fluids, such as liquids and gases, in industrial and commercial settings. These systems are used in a variety of applications, including heating and cooling, water supply, waste disposal, chemical processing, and power generation. The basic components of a piping system include pipes, fittings, valves, and pumps. The pipes are the main component and are used to transport fluids from one location to another. The fittings are used to connect the pipes and change the direction of the flow. Valves are used to control the flow of the fluid, and pumps are used to move the fluid through the system. The installation of a piping system involves several steps, including: Planning and design: This involves identifying the requirements of the system and determining the optimal layout, pipe sizing, and material selection. Pipe cutting and fitting: This involves cutting the pipes to the required length and connecting them using fittings, such as elbows, tees, and couplings. Welding or brazing: This is used to join the pipes and fittings together, creating a leak-proof seal. Valve and pump installation: Valves and pumps are installed in strategic locations to control the flow of fluid through the system. Testing and commissioning: This involves testing the system to ensure that it is functioning correctly and commissioning it for use. Maintenance of piping systems involves regular inspections, cleaning, and repairs to ensure that the system is functioning correctly and efficiently. Regular maintenance can help prevent leaks, corrosion, and other issues that can lead to system failure. Piping work requires specialized skills and knowledge, including an understanding of the properties of the fluids being transported, the materials used in the piping system, and the safety requirements of the installation and maintenance process. It is typically performed by trained professionals, such as plumbers, pipefitters, and industrial technicians. Types of Piping Works There are several types of piping works based on their purpose and application. Here are some common types: Process piping: This type of piping is used to transport fluids in industrial processes such as chemical, pharmaceutical, oil and gas, food processing, and water treatment plants. Plumbing piping: This type of piping is used to distribute and remove water and wastewater in residential and commercial buildings. HVAC piping: This type of piping is used in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems to distribute heated or cooled air throughout a building. Fire protection piping: This type of piping is used to provide water for fire sprinklers and standpipes in buildings and other structures. Gas piping: This type of piping is used to transport natural gas and other gases for industrial, commercial, and residential use. Steam piping: This type of piping is used to transport steam in industrial processes, heating systems, and power generation plants. Refrigeration piping: This type of piping is used to transport refrigerants in cooling systems for refrigeration and air conditioning. Each type of piping work requires different materials, installation techniques, and safety measures. For example, gas piping requires special materials and installation procedures to ensure safety, while steam piping requires materials that can withstand high temperatures and pressure. Therefore, it is important to select the right type of piping work and hire professionals with experience and knowledge in the specific type of piping work required.

Cerafiltec

1 Introduction Congratulations on choosing CERAFILTEC’s ceramic membrane module. The CERAFILTEC system is a highly sophisticated product. We strongly recommend using only trained and experienced technicians for assembly, installation and troubleshooting. To locate the closest authorized service technician or to request an assembly training please contact your CERAFILTEC representative or visit website at http://www.cerafiltec.com/team/. If you decide to install the equipment yourself, please follow this assembling manual. For installation assistance, contact your CERAFILTEC representative. You will ensure a successful installation as well as reliable operation by carefully reading this manual and following the operational guidelines. Convince yourself about the easy assembling. Under the following links we show you demonstration videos of assembling and operation references: http://www.cerafiltec.com/how-to-assemble/ http://www.cerafiltec.com/videos-processes-references/ This document contains general guidelines. Depending on the application and project specific installation requirements, e.g. how many modules per tower to be assembled, construction of accessories inside the filtration tank, like position holders, aeration and sprinkler sets, hose connections of tower, main filtered water header, and other need to be considered. Please follow these additional instructions, listed in the project design and execution documents. If you do not have the project design or execution documents, please contact your CERAFILTEC representative. Please contact your CERAFILTEC representative or check on website http://www.cerafiltec.com for any further manual updates to insure correct and safe assembly and installation. 2 Technology and Product Introduction 2.1 Filtration classification, applications and removal targets CERAFILTEC’s filtration module is a chemical and temperature resistant Ultra-Filtration (UF) ceramic membrane filter for solid-liquid separation. It can be used in various sources of contaminated water. The technology is well used in the following applications: ▪ Drinking water from ground- and surface water sources ▪ Brackish water and seawater reverse osmosis pre-filtration ▪ Municipal and industrial wastewater treatment ▪ Mining wastewater treatment ▪ Oily wastewater treatment ▪ Produced water treatment ▪ Scrubber wastewater for marine scrubbers ▪ Recovery of backwash wastewater from sand filters ▪ Sludge thickening of activated sludge ▪ Hot water filtration ▪ Others challenging industrial waters With an average filter pore size of 0.1 micron the UF membrane acts as a physical barrier to removal any suspended solids from the water, like: ▪ Sand particles, silt and colloidal silica ▪ Metal oxides, like iron and manganese oxides ▪ Pollen, Germs and bacteria ▪ Algae ▪ Oil and grease ▪ Colloidal fractions ▪ Chlorinated diphenyl ▪ TEP (Transparent Exopolymer Particles) ▪ EPS (Extra polymeric Substances) ▪ Others Ultra-filtration technologies with a pore size of 0.1 µm are commonly understood as filtration solution to remove suspended solids such as clay and silt, pollen, algae, precipitated metal oxides as well as fractions of colloids. They are also a physical barrier for germs and bacteria and are classified as disinfection solution with typical log removal value (LRV) above 5.

CERAFILTEC’s ceramic flat sheet membrane solution is more than just a common ultra-filtration. In conjunction with developed pre-treatment processes, e.g. active cake layer filtration for a selective removal of dissolved ions, CERAFILTEC provides a superior filtration solution. Therewith, only CERAFILTEC achieves unprecedented filtered water quality, and consequently being the best prefiltration solution for all NF and RO applications. The technology is typically used as pre-filtration for desalting technologies, like Nano-Filtration and Reverse Osmosis. CERAFILTEC’s filtration module is highly seawater resistant and corrosive free. http://www.cerafiltec.com/classification/ 3 Ceramic Flat Sheet Materials The CERAFILTEC module housing can be used with a wide variety of ceramic flat membranes. The module housing of CERAFILTEC is the standard and the different ceramic membranes can be used specifically according to the application. The ceramic plates marketed by CERAFILTEC have different properties depending on their choice. Please refer to the manufacturer's instructions for the membranes. 3.1 Ceramic Membrane properties The high resistance of ceramic materials and the resulting cleaning possibilities generate a unique highperformance system. Depending on the medium and the operating conditions, mechanical, thermal, and chemical cleaning strategies it can be combined individually to achieve a stable and low maintenance long-term operation. 4 CERAFILTEC´s Ceramic Membrane Module One module is a single, modular and expandable filtration unit consisting of a glass fiber reinforced plastic housing and the flat sheet ceramic plates. The module housing was developed to tightly transport the liquid medium in internal channels, while at the same time withstanding high mechanical forces. Our 3rd generation module is flow optimized to achieve the maximum performance of the ceramic membranes. The four large internal filtered water channels allow for flux rates up to 1,500 LMH (equal to 9 m³/hr) with one single module at minimal pressure losses. The entire housing, as well as all accessories are free of any metals and therefore usable in the harshest applications and at the same time achieving a very long lifespan. Additionally, no surrounding frames or hose connections between the modules are required.

Benefits: ▪ Less filter area needed due to high flux operation – high CAPEX savings ▪ Suitable for seawater and other challenging applications without any risks of corrosion problems ▪ Operation at hot temperature up to boiling water ▪ Fully modular due to no surrounding frame – option to change number of modules per tower at any time either to optimize project costs or to increase the plant capacity in future ▪ Most compact design – towers can be installed in close distance to each other as no hoses are needed 4.1 Module 6.0 S The Module 6.0 S is our standard for most applications. ▪ Filtration module with ceramic flat sheet membranes suitable for submerged applications ▪ Multi ceramic plate configuration with exchangeable single ceramic plates ▪ Internal filtered water piping ▪ Module housing fully made of glass fiber reinforced resin – free of any steel parts ▪ Suitable for harsh applications like groundwater, seawater, surface water, MBR, TSE and other challenging industrial waters ▪ High flux operation up to 1,500 LMH Specifications

Pneumatic Actuator

A pneumatic actuator is a device that uses compressed air to generate mechanical motion. It is commonly used in industrial applications to control valves, dampers, and other mechanical components. Pneumatic actuators are often preferred over other types of actuators because they are reliable, easy to maintain, and provide fast and precise control. The basic components of a pneumatic actuator include a cylinder, a piston, and a valve. When compressed air is introduced into the cylinder, it pushes the piston, which generates mechanical motion. The valve controls the flow of compressed air into and out of the cylinder, allowing the actuator to move in different directions. There are two types of pneumatic actuators: double-acting and spring-return. In a double-acting pneumatic actuator, compressed air is used to move the piston in both directions, while in a spring-return actuator, compressed air is used to move the piston in one direction, and a spring is used to return the piston to its original position. Pneumatic actuators are available in different sizes and shapes to fit a variety of applications. They can be mounted in different orientations, and some models can be customized with different accessories, such as position indicators and limit switches, to enhance their functionality. Pneumatic actuators have several advantages over other types of actuators. They are relatively simple and easy to install and maintain, and they provide fast and precise control. They are also resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments, making them suitable for use in industrial applications.

Conveyor Belt

Conveyors are mechanical devices or assemblies used to move items or packages with minimal effort. They usually consist of frames that support rollers, wheels, or belts and may be motor powered or manual devices. Belt conveyors convey material with the help of belt The belt of the conveyor may be of textile, strip steel, woven mesh steel wire.  Conveyors with textile belt  Conveyors with metal belt  Chain driven and rope driven belt conveyors N.B. Conveyors with rubberized textile belts have found the most extensive application. Types of belt conveyors: (i). According to the design a. Stationary conveyors b. Portable & mobile conveyors (ii). According to the purpose c. General purpose conveyor d. Special purpose conveyor Special purpose belts are used to convey hot loads or for operation at ambient temperature over +60°C and -25°C and also for the transport of material chemically injurious to the fabric or rubber cover of the belt. Special purpose belts include heat – resistant, frost resistant, and uninflammable and other types. Geometry of belt conveyor: According to their path of motion belt conveyors are classified as:  Horizontal  Inclined  Combined - Inclined horizontal - Horizontal inclined - Horizontal inclined horizontal - Inclined horizontal inclined

Parts of belt conveyors: 1. Belts: Various types of textile belts are employed in belt conveyors: Camel hair, cotton (woven or sewed), duck cotton. Rubberized textile belts are widely used. Conveyors belts should meet the following requirements: 1. Low hygroscopocity 2. High strength 3. Low own weight (Light in weight) 4. Small specific elongation 5. High flexibility 6. High resistivity to ply (Layer of material) 7. Long service life Rubberized textile belts: Rubberized textile belts are made from several layers known as plies of a rough woven cotton fabric known as belling. The plies are connected by vulcanization with natural or synthetic rubber. Sometimes the plies are made of extra – strong synthetic fabrics, Capron, perlon, nylon etc. 2. Idlers: Generally the belt is supported by idler rollers, in rare cases by a solid wood, or sheet steel, runway or a combination support comprising sections of a runway alternating with idle rollers. Idlers are used mainly in conveyors handling bulk loads, less frequently unit loads, while runways and combined supports are predominantly used for piece goods

According to their location on the conveyors, idlers are classified as upper (supporting the loaded strand of the belt) and lower (supporting the idler return strand of the belt). 3. Centering device: A number of reasons, such as eccentric loading, soiling, sticking of the material to the pulleys and rollers etc., may cause the belt to run crooked. To prevent the belt from running off the rollers, special “Belt training idlers” of various designs are used. These idlers automatically maintain belt alignment with respect to a device (idlers) called centering device. 4. Take ups: A belt conveyor may have a mechanical (screw type) or counterweight (gravity type) take up. The latter may in turn be divided into carries – type (sometimes called horizontal and vertical. In the screw take up the tensioning pulley simultaneously serves as deflecting til or pulley and rotates on a fixed shaft (best design) or in terminal bearings (worst design). In gravity take ups the tensioning pulley (serving simultaneously as tail and pulley) is placed on a movable carriage which is pulled backwards by means of a steel rope and deflecting pulleys. The vertical counterweight take up consists of three pulleys, (two deflecting and one tensioning) and are installed on the return strand of the conveyor. N.B. The carriage type take-up is superior to the vertical type because it is of much simpler design of considerably less height. 5. Drive units: In belt conveyors motive power is transmitted to the belt by friction as it wraps around the driving pulley rotted by an electric motor; the drive comprises the following parts: the pulley (Sometimes two pulleys), motor and the transmission gear between the motor and the pulley. Drives of inclined conveyors include a braking device which prevents slipping back of the loaded belt under the weight of the material conveyed if the current supplying the motor is interrupted. 6. Loading & discharging: Loading depends on the nature & characteristics of the load conveyed and the method of loading. Example: Charging For piece goods  various types of chutes are directly loaded onto the belt. For loose materials  feed hopper Discharging: Generally employed by - Scrapper ploughs - A throw – off carriage known as tripper (only used for bulk materials) N.B.: The discharge plough is a board placed at a certain angle α to the longitudinal axis of the belt and fastened on a frame. 7. Belt Cleaner: In case of dry particles: The clinging dry particles are cleaned by scrapper/wiper In case of wet and sticky materials: Revolving brushes are used Scrappers are mounted on  end pulley Brushes are mounted on  lower num. Belt cleaners are mounted near the discharge pulley

8. Automated hold back brakes: A sudden stoppage of a loaded inclined belt conveyor may cause slipping back of the loaded belt. This will happen if longitudinal component of load weight which is larger than the forces of frictional resistance to belt motion. - To prevent this type of spontaneous movement of the belt, a special hold back brake is mounted on the main or auxiliary shaft which keep inclined in conveyor. - It is a special protecting device which automatically disconnects the drive when the belt slips on the pulley. 9. Conveyor frame: - It is a supporting structure of the conveyor & is usually electrical welded - Consists of longitudinal beams, up-rights & cross pieces - The height of the frame is usually 400 – 500 mm - The spacing between upright is 2 – 3.5 m

Application of belt conveyors: 1. Convey great variety of unit loads & bulk loads 2. Foundry shop to convey mold or sand 3. Deliver fuel in power plant 4. Distribution of molding sand 5. Coal or ores mining 6. Cement & food industries 7. Carry articles of light weight in line production from one operation to another. Advantages of belt conveyors: 1. High capacity 500-5000 m3 /hour or more 2. Ability to transport loads for long distance (500-1000m or up) 3. Simplicity in design 4. Comparatively low in own weight 5. Reliable source 6. Convenient operation 7. Less skill required to operate Disadvantages of belt conveyors: 1. Not suitable for hot ashes & slag. 2. Not suitable granular, powder 3. Abrasive material can cause defect in conveyor Flight Conveyor Ordinary solid flight conveyors consists of essentially of open trough secured on frame work, along with runs the putting member fitted the terminal sprockets & pulleys and takes its motion from drive unit & it initially tensioned by take up.

Working Principle 1. The material to be conveyed is loaded into the through at any point along the carrying run & is pushed by the flights. 2. Discharge can be effected at any point through openings in the trough, shut with gates or sliding doors. 3. Both the lower and upper strands of the conveyor can served as loaded stands. 4. When necessary it can convey materials simultaneously in opposite direction. Application 1. Convey various powdered, granular & free flowing lump materials. 2. Mostly using coal mining operations. 3. Transport hot ashes & slug. 4. Special cable-disk conveyors are employed for handling piece goods such as wood, pulpwood etc. Advantages 1. Simple design 2. Ability to convey in both direction. 3. Easy loading & unloading at any point along the conveying run. Disadvantages 1. Crushing & breaking of the materials during transportation 2. Rapid wear of trough & moving parts. 3. Can not transport load for long distance(50-60m) 4. Low capacity & it is (150-200) tons per hour. Different Parts of Flight of Conveyors Trough: The Trough is a welded structure made of 4-6 mm sheet steel of rectangular or trapezoidal or of rolled profiles.  Troughs may be stumped of sheet steel.  In conveyors designed to handle light-weight materials (such as sawdust, grail etc ). The trough may be of wood.  The clearance between flight & trough should be (3-6) mm.  The trough is assembled of 4-6 m long sections. Drive Unit: The drive unit is of the usual type, commonly supplied with a reducing gear.  It’s duty to protect gear against breakages in case of an accidental overloads Take Up Unit: The take up chain & flight conveyors is of the screw or spring and screw type.  The adjustment length should be nit less than 1.6 times the chain pitch. Frame Work: The frame work of flight conveyors is generally welded of rolled profiles & assembled of separate sections. Flights: Flat rectangular flight symmetrically fastened on roller chains to carry the flights have found the most extensive application.  Are one of the most frequently used types is the box-type flight conveyor with having longitudinal slide plates. Pulling Member: The reliable and effective operation & long service life of a conveying machine will be ensured if the pulling member wraps freely around drums, sprockets & pulleys of small diameter.  Combines high strength & low weight.  The conveying machine without a pulling member will not fit into general classification as they have no identical purpose. Difference between belt conveyor & flight conveyor Belt Conveyor 1. Can not transport hot ashes & slag. 2. Ability to convey in one direction. 3. Loading and unloading takes place at the specified position/fixed point. 4. Can transport load for long distance (500-1000m or more) 5. High capacity. 6. Comparatively low in own weight. 7. Less skill required to operate Flight Conveyor 1. Can transport hot ashes & slag 2. Ability to convey in both direction. 3. Easy loading & unloading at any point 4. Can not transport load for long distance (50-60m) 5. Low capacity (150-200 tons per hour). 6. Comparatively high in own weight. 7. Comparatively skill required.

Belt Filter Press

DESCRIPTION Belt filter presses are used to remove water from liquid wastewater residuals and produce a non-liquid material referred to as “cake”. Dewatered residuals, or cake, vary in consistency from that of custard to moist soil. Dewatering serves the following purposes: C Reducing the volume, thus reducing storage and transportation costs. C Eliminating free liquids before landfill disposal. C Reducing fuel requirements if residuals are to be incinerated or dried. C Producing a material which will have sufficient void space and volatile solids for composting when blended with a bulking agent. C Avoiding the potential of biosolids pooling and runoff associated with liquid land application. C Optimizing subsequent processes such as thermal drying. A belt filter dewaters by applying pressure to the biosolids to squeeze out the water. Biosolids sandwiched between two tensioned porous belts are passed over and under rollers of various diameters. Increased pressure is created as the belt passes over rollers which decrease in diameter. Many designs of belt filtration processes are available, but all incorporate the following basic features: polymer conditioning zone, gravity drainage zones, low pressure squeezing zone, and high pressure squeezing zones. Advanced designs provide a large filtration area, additional rollers, and variable belt speeds that can increase cake solids by five percent. The general mechanical components of a belt filter press include dewatering belts, rollers and bearings, belt tracking and tensioning system, controls and drives, and a belt washing system. Figure 1 depicts a typical belt filter press. APPLICABILITY Belt filter presses can be used to dewater most biosolids generated at municipal wastewater treatment plants and are a common type of mechanical dewatering equipment. Using mechanical equipment to dewater solids may not be the most cost effective alternative for wastewater treatment plants operating at less than about 4 mgd. The selection of dewatering equipment should be based on the results of a site specific biosolids management plan which identifies both processing and end use alternatives and estimates costs. It may be less expensive to haul liquid to an application site or pay a processing facility to dewater and process or landfill the dewatered cake. Smaller facilities should also evaluate non-mechanical dewatering methods, such as drying beds or reed beds. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES Advantages and disadvantages of belt filter presses for dewatering wastewater solids are summarized below:Source: U.S. EPA, 1987. Advantages C Staffing requirements are low, especially if the equipment is large enough to process the solids in one shift (USEPA, 1987). C Maintenance is relatively simple and can usually be completed by a wastewater treatment plant maintenance crew. Replacing the belt is the major maintenance cost. C Belt presses can be started and shut down quickly compared to centrifuges, which require up to an hour to build up speed (Henderson and Schultz, 1999). C There is less noise associated with belt presses compared to centrifuges (Henderson and Schultz, 1999). Disadvantages C Odors may be a problem, but can be controlled with good ventilation systems and chemicals, such as potassium permanganate, to neutralize odor-causing compounds (Rudolf, 1992). Some manufacturers offer fully enclosed equipment to minimize odors and reduce vapors in the operating room air (Bain et al., 1999). C Belt presses require more operator attention if the feed solids vary in their solids concentration or organic matter. This should not be a problem if the belt presses are fed from well-mixed digesters (Henderson and Schultz, 1999). C Wastewater solids with higher concentrations of oil and grease can result in blinding the belt filter and lower solids content cake. C Wastewater solids must be screened and/or ground to minimize the risk of sharp objects damaging the belt. C Belt washing at the end of each shift, or more frequently, can be time consuming and require large amounts of water(Henderson and Schultz, 1999). An automatic belt washing system and the use of effluent can minimize these costs. DESIGN CRITERIA Belt presses are sized on the basis of weight or volume of solids to be dewatered rather than the wastewater flow to the plant. To determine how many presses are needed, the wastewater treatment plant must: C Determine the amount of primary solids that will flow through the plant per day. C Determine the amount of waste-activated or trickling filter solids produced per day. C Determine the volume of thickened solids to be dewatered per day. C Estimate the range of dry solids concentration in the feed. C Estimate future increases in solids production. C Anticipate changes in sewer discharges or operation that could change solids quality or organic matter content. An effective biosolids management plan will include the above information. It is important to design for excess capacity so that the anticipated amount of incoming solids can be easily dewatered during operating hours. Allowing for excess capacity also ensures that the plant will not experience a build-up of solids if a unit is out of service. If only one unit is required, the plant should have an alternate program to remove solids in liquid form. The polymer conditioning zone can be a small tank, approximately 265 to 379 liters (70 to 100 gallons) located 0.6 to 1.8 meters (2 to 6 feet) from the press, a rotating drum attached to the top of the press, or an in-line injector. The press manufacturer usually supplies this zone along with the belt filter press (USEPA, 1986). The gravity drainage zone is a flat or slightly inclined belt unique to each model. Solids are dewatered by the gravity drainage of the free water. A 5 to 10 percent increase in solids concentration from the original biosolids should occur in this zone (USEPA, 1987). The free water drainage is a function of wastewater solids type, quality, conditioning, screen mesh, and design of the drainage zone. The low-pressure zone is the area where the upper and lower belts come together with the wastewater solids in between. This is sometimes called the “wedge zone,” because the feed solids are sandwiched between the upper and lower belts. The low-pressure zone prepares the biosolids by forming a firm cake which can withstand the forces of the high pressure zone. In the high-pressure zone, forces are exerted on the solids by the movement of the upper and lower belts as they move over and under a series of rollers of decreasing diameter. Some belt filter press models separate from the rest of the unit to increase pressure on the biosolids. This produces a drier cake, an important factor for plants that incinerate the final product or face high end use or disposal costs. A biosolids management plan should evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of a high performance belt filter press. An additional design feature is a self-enclosed facility to reduce odors and protect worker health (Bain et al., 1999). Workers in the belt press areas are exposed to aerosols from wash spray nozzles and pathogens and hazardous gasses such as hydrogen sulfide. Enclosing the press reduces visibility to the operators and produces a corrosive environment for the rollers and bearings, but automating the system can alleviate these problems. The automation of belt presses is the subject of a Water Environment Research Foundation project. Benefits of automation include optimization of nonlinear variables which was rarely possible with manual or semi-automated operation, and the ability to produce dewatered cake at a constant rate. Automation generally increases capital costs by 10 percent. Manufacturers claim that this extra expense is worthwhile because it lowers labor costs,reduces polymer use, and maximizes the solids content of the cake, reducing disposal and end use costs (Gillette et al., 2000). The choice of dewatering technique and chemical polymer or salts impacts dewaterability as well as the potential for odor during further processing or recycling to land. Ancillary equipment for efficient operation of a belt press includes: C Polymer. C Mixing, aging, feed, liquid feed day tank. C Liquid residuals feed pump. C Odor control and ventilation. C Conveyor and/or pump to move dewatered cake. C An enclosed area to load trucks or containers. PERFORMANCE Manufacturers should be consulted for design and performance data early in the planning stage. Data should be confirmed with other operating installations and/or thrash pilot testing. Evaluation of equipment should consider capital and operating costs, including polymer, electricity, wash water, solids capture, and ventilation and odor control during dewatering and further processing or recycling. The operator can ensure system integration by requiring that the self-enclosed belt press, ventilation, and polymer system is supplied by a single provider. Since solids characteristics and quantity vary from plant to plant, it is important to evaluate different weaves, permeability, and solids retention abilities of dewatering belts to ensure optimum performance. Surveys of similar plants or testing of wastewater solids can be helpful in the decision-making process. Table 1 displays the range of performance of a high pressure belt press on various types of wastewater solids. Odor Control Odor complaints at wastewater treatment plants and biosolids end use sites can interfere with implementation of the most cost effective biosolids management options. Odor control measures should be included when designing dewatering facilities. Odor control is addressed in more detail in another fact sheet, but briefly, the methods include: TABLE 1 TYPICAL DATA FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF SLUDGES DEWATERED ON BELT FILTER PRESSES Type of Wastewater Sludge Total Feed Solids (percent) Polymer (g/kg) Total Cake Solids (percent) Raw Primary 3 to 10 1 to 5 28 to 44 Raw WAS 0.5 to 4 1 to 10 20 to 35 Raw Primary + WAS 3 to 6 1 to 10 20 to 35 Anaerobically Digested Primary 3 to 10 1 to 5 25 to 36 Anaerobically Digested WAS 3 to 4 2 to 10 12 to 22 Anaerobically Digested Primary + WAS 3 to 9 2 to 8 18 to 44 Aerobically Digested Primary + WAS 1 to 3 2 to 8 12 to 20 Oxygen Activated WAS 1 to 3 4 to 10 15 to 23 Thermally Conditioned Primary + WAS 4 to 8 0 25 to 50 Source: U.S. EPA, 1987.Source: Dr. Peter Wright, Cornell University, 1996. FIGURE 2 DEWATERED SOLIDS CAKE DROPPING FROM BELT FILTER PRESS AFTER PROCESSING • Using a self enclosed belt press. • Adding potassium permanganate or other oxidizing agent to minimize odors in the solids. • Minimizing liquid storage prior to belt pressing to less than 24 hours. The longer the solids are stored, the lower the pH, the higher the liquid ammonia concentration, and the higher the organic sulfide emissions (Hentz et al., 2000). • Conducting bench-scale and full-scale testing of liquid sludge to determine if combined storage of primary and waste activated sludges accelerates the deterioration of biosolids (Hentz et al., 2000). • Specifying polymers that are stable at elevated temperatures and pH. This is especially important at facilities using lime stabilization or high temperature processing such as heat drying, thermophyllic digestion, or composting. Self-Enclosed Belt Presses The main purpose of a self-enclosed system is to minimize the amount of foul air needing treatment in an odor control system. An induced draft fan provides a slight negative pressure (typically 100 cubic feet per meter per meter of belt width.) The system design should: C Minimize gaps in the enclosure. C Minimize enclosure volume. C Locate mechanical and electrical components requiring maintenance outside the enclosed area for easy access and reduced maintenance. C Include automation to optimize performance of the belt press. C Use stainless steel materials. C Provide multiple access hatches to allow operator viewing and clean up. C Provide for easy removal of the belt for replacement (Bain et al., 1999). Chemical Addition Solids must be conditioned with polymer to ensure optimum performance. Polymer feed points should be designed at several locations to ensure flexibility and optimum performance. The solids/polymer mixture should be subject to gentle mixing as turbulent conditions can sheer the floc, minimizing polymer effectiveness. Polymer dilution and aging systems should be large enough to optimize polymer usage. Potassium permanganate or other oxidizing agents are often added to solids prior to dewatering. These have been shown to reduce odors caused by sulfides, reduce the amount of polymer needed, and increase cake solids content (Rudolf, 1992). Figure 2 shows dewatered solids from a belt filter press after processing. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE It is important to monitor operating parameters to achieve optimum performance and ensure that solids are properly conditioned and that good gravity drainage occurs. The manufacturer shouldprovide operation and maintenance training after installation as well as ongoing training to maintain skills. Dewatering belts should be designed for easy replacement with minimum downtime. Belt washing should occur daily after the cake is removed. Replacement of filter belts is a common maintenance requirement. Belt life averages about 2,700 running hours, with a range of 400 to 12,000 hours. A belt press operator is responsible for polymer mixing, dosing and monitoring usage, and observing the feed and cake several times per day, making adjustments as necessary. Rollers and bearings require frequent lubrication. It is important for the operator to keep records of all press performance parameters, including the volume of biosolids fed to the press, polymer dosage, and potassium permanganate or other chemical usage. A sample of the biosolids to the press, cake discharge, and filtrate should be taken at least once per shift and analyzed for total solids. At the end of each shift, the belt should be cleaned with high-pressure wash water. Labor is relative to plant size. A plant with a single belt press needs four to eight staff hours per day (including lab testing), whereas six to eight presses can be operated with eight to ten staff hours per day. Large plants use less operating effort per belt press. Highly automated systems reduce labor requirements, but require an instrumentation specialist to maintain the system.